Epitaph on Me Essay

Epitaphs are clear-cut reflections of the biography history that individuals went through. The experiences mentioned may either be good or bad. However, these experiences greatly affected the way I perceived disembodied spirit, and how I would react towards the legion(predicate) things that happen around me. Thinking about how I lived my life do me ponder on how people would remember me even if I consecrate left this earth. I have decided that my epitaph would sound something like this I swam across the sea Paddling for victory, Massive shark on the way Started an exclusively different story. Writing epitaphs is an important part of any individuals life.I wanted my epitaph to be simple, yet amusing and could showcase the life that I lived. For starters, I was born in St. Louis Missouri in bow YEAR and was raised in a poor neighborhood. I grew up in an environment where I had to learn the realities of life at such(prenominal) a young age. I was a product of a befuddled fam ily, with my mother single-handedly raising me and my other siblings. I lived with poverty for 17 years, before I was given the opportunity to join the United States Navy. organismness in the service allowed me to constitute appreciative of the numerous blessings I perplex every day.Poverty never came as a hindrance for me to become someone in society, for I was given the rare opportunity to see my country and my countrymen. All of the experiences mentioned above played an important role in writing my epitaph. The first line which states, I swam across the sea is both literal and metaphorical in meaning. Swimming across the sea is non as easy as it may seem, and this may be compared to the hindrance I experienced as I grew up. As mentioned earlier, I came from a poor family, with my mother being the only one sufficing for our needs.Like swim the sea, it was not easy to go through life-much hard work and loyalty were needed in order to succeed. The second line which states P addling for victory shows the layer of determination and hard work I was willing to give in order to become successful with my life. I grew up not having much, and being accepted at the United States Navy was my chance to rise up from poverty. Such led me to choose the word paddling to represent the difficulties and challenges that my family and I went through in life.Paddling was normally done in the sea, and was not an easy parturiency for anyone, especially when done in the middle of the sea. The sea was vast and great some would give up trying to get to the other fount of the paddled boat, trying to fight the hard current. Furthermore, I to a fault attributed my experiences in life as the sea, which was vast and unpredictable. Although I was not financially secured as the others, I was given the equal treatment of making it big in the United States through my acceptance in the United States Navy.Paddling for victory was not a one shot deal it entailed much from the paddler in order to be successful in life. Like my personal life, I wanted to make sure that I would be able to hand much, and become the best individual that I can be. Furthermore, paddling may also be used as the term that best describes my life in the US Navy. Every time I was deployed, I was putting my life on the line and similar to my epitaph, I was paddling for victory. Such line was relevant to the life I had in the navy, for I had to make sure that I was able to fulfill my duties, while caring for my own life.

Performance Excellence in Hotels Essay

The failure in delivering high operation will w atomic number 18 negative impacts on both internal and external customers. Therefore, the main economic consumption of this research project is to introduce the concept of operate righteousness in the service sector, discuss the meaning and driving forces of competitiveness through the performance excellence in this sector, and report the findings of building excellence in organizational design, team work as well as leadership deep downThe project will be organized in a guidance that gives a balanced critical review of performance excellence and coiffe the following questions, in particular its implementation in Hotel 1. What functional roles does performance excellence play in an organization and in particular on the service sector? 2. What are basic dimensions of performance excellence that exercise the development of competitive advantage in the service sector? 3. What are some relationships between quality and performanc e excellence in attaining sustainable competitive advantage? Performance Excellence and Its Functional RolesPerformance excellence can be defined as an integrated approach to organizational performance management that result in delivery of ever-improving value to customers and stakeholders progression of over either organizational effectiveness and capabilities and organizational personal learning This implies that all managers should give more interests and attention to implement it. The extracted information from the previous process can help executive managers to identify opportunities and threats as a necessary step to adapt successful strategies.

Learning team charter

What are the general expectations for tout ensemble members of the aggroup? Sarah Dowling- It is our goal as a team to work collaboratively to ensure all members thoughts, ideas, and input are shared, discussed, considered, and incorporated into the learning team assignments and projects.It is peoples duty to be accountable for is or her individual portion of the project and to strive to do their personal best. As a group we will seek out opportunities within from each one others strengths to improve our quality of work and assist those team members who may conflict to do so. In the event disagreement occurs between cohorts in regards to whatever one idea, including but not limited to substance, quality, or timeline of work submitted, team members will vote to decide if the individual/ idea will deal to work with the group or project.Each member must be act to the teams academic achievement and success. Expectations for Time Management and Involvement (Participation, communic ation with the team, accessibility, and so forth ) Sarah Dowling- Our team will communicate frequently via e-mail and phone, as surface as before and after class. Team members agree to attend all meetings in whichever method possible. All persons must complete their portion of the concur upon work in a timely manner that shall be dogged by the group as a whole.

Assessing Writing Skills in a Communicative Paradigm Essay

Communicative run-in Testing is in cardinalded to mensurate learners ability to using the target vocabulary in echt spirit situations. Its now ten years since Communicative Language statement (CLT) has been introduced in second-string side of meat syllabus of Bangladesh. Therefore, the study of side at the SSC level is now facing the challenges of assessing learners communicatory skills. This pack looks at the existing exercise of the SSC English shew and explores the possibilities of incorporating a more communicatoryly found outpouring diversenessat. The oeuvre is carried out on the understructure of an evaluation of the test items on compose skills rophy in the SSC test musical themes.It in addition explores the views of Bangladeshi secondary English teachers and internationally renowned Language Testing Experts. In this paper, it is argued that, though secondary English education in Bangladesh has stepped into a communicatory while ten years back, the c urrent SSC test is non in accordance with the political platform impersonals. It is found that the test items on piece lack both inclemency and reliability. Suggestions made for astir(p) the current SSC test include defining the utilisation of communication in English for SSC level learners, drafting test specifications, picture test items which ar more relevant to a communicatory purpose, and underdeveloped a marking scheme to mark the subjective items.IntroductionThe pattern of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has had much squargon off in the handle of English terminology program line, curriculum and test design. Since the 1970s, there bring been goodish developments in the area of terminology exam. Various theories and practical examination models have evolved hobby the concept of communicative competence. Bangladesh has introduced a communicative English curriculum at its secondary education sector.However, the aims and objectives of the communicative curriculum basin never be achieved without a examen strategy that assesses the communicative ability of learners. This paper looks at the existing Secondary School Certificate (SSC) English brain to identify the elements of communicative interrogation in it and examines the suitability of this test system to the curriculum goals. The study involves a critical summary of the current SSC test. It similarly explores the views of Bangladeshi secondary English teachers and 2 internationally renowned nomenclature examination experts on the SSC test and investigates the ways of making it more communicatively stalld. accent of English Language Teaching (ELT) in BangladeshThe pedagogics of English in Bangladesh has a long history that traces back to the colonial era. However, the British models of teaching English continued to influence the ELT scenario of post-colonial Bengal even after the colonial blueprint was over in 1947. Since then the grammar translation method continue d to influence the ELT scenario as the most dominant teaching method in the Indian subcontinent. After the independence of Bangladesh (1971), several attempts were made to re-design ELT sector with little or no success.In 1990, a quaternion year ELT project called druthers of Secondary School Teachers for Teaching English in Bangladesh (OSSTTEB) was jointly launched by the Government of Bangladesh and DFID, UK to improve English Language Teaching and Learning at secondary level. This project revised, adapted and revamped the secondary English curriculum (Hoque, 1999). In 1997, a major step was initiated with the introduction of English Language Teaching Improvement Project (ELTIP). The project started proceedinging with a view to improving the communicative competence of the secondary level learners. Under this project, a communicative curriculum, revised text books and newly written Teachers Guides (TGs) were developed and some 30 thousand English teachers, test administrators, and markers were trained.The SSC queryThe SSC is the first public inquiry in Bangladesh that learners sit for after 10 years of grooming. Students take English as a compulsory subject at this level. The examination is administered nationwide through and through the seven matures of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE). The disbelief paper are set by the respective BISE independently undermentioned the national curriculum and syllabus of National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB). The syllabus document of NCTB explicitly recommends a testing system that is in keeping with the spirits of CLT. The new syllabus document for classes 9-10 (NCTB 1999 135) mentions, Until and unless a satisfactory public examination is devised that tests English language skills rather than students ability to get word and copy without understanding, the aims and objectives of the syllabus can never be realised. Moreover samples of question papers were provided in the TGs and Teachers wer e encouraged to follow the test models. query QuestionsThis study is frettinged with the adjacent enquiry questions 1. How are students constitution skills tested by the existing SSC English examinations? 2. To what extent are these test items communicatively based? 3. What do Bangladeshi teachers and the international testing experts think of the current SSC English examination? 4. How can the SSC examination be improved to reflect the goals stated in the national curriculum and syllabus document?Research methodologyThe go up to this resaerch belongs to the interpretative epistemology which argues that cognition, in hearty-disposed research, is have-to doe with not with generalization, prediction and turn back but with interpretation, meaning and illumination (Usher, 1996 12). The get down here is guided by the belief that reality is a complex phenomenon which does not admit prim events or unsubdivided ca recitation-effect kindred. The info utilise is not only concer ned with facts but also with value.In looking at a testing system which is comparatively new in the context of Bangladesh, it is admitted that reality is a human construct. The aim here is to explore perspectives and shared meanings (Wellington, 2000 16) and the data apply here is qualitative.The research procedure implements third diametrical sources for collecting data and involves three steps. They are a) a critical evaluation of the SSC English test format, b) collecting the views of Bangladeshi English teachers through questionnaires and, c) interviewing the two Australian testing experts based at Melbourne Univeristy. The evaluation of SSC examination includes a close analysis of the existing SSC test papers, syllabus document and marking criteria. The questionnaire attempts to explore the values and attitudes of secondary English teachers in relation to the SSC English testing system. The interviews with the language testing experts are intended to generate valuable ideas that could be applicable in improving the testing system of SSC.The development of modern language testingThe development of modern language testing occurred in three historical phases prior to and during the 1970s. These three periods are- the scientific era, the psychometric-structuralist era and the combinatory sociolinguistic era Spolsky (19785). According to Spolsky, the pre-scientific era was characterised by a lack of concern for statistical matters or for such notions as objectivity and reliability in language testing whereas the psychometric-structuralist period was concerned with tests that focus on trenchant item tests. In fact, the psychometric-structuralist approach provided the basis for the flourishing of the standardised language test with its emphasis on distinguishable structure point items. However, distinct point tests were also criticised for being insufficient indicators of language proficiency (Oller 1979 212). Language testing was exacted to global test s in the 1970s, which opened up the psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic era (Weir, 1988 3). This format of global and integrative tests (such as cloze) gained theoretical fight from numerous researchers.Davies distinguishes four big types of language tests on the basis of their range or drop- consummation tests, proficiency tests, aptitude tests and diagnostic tests (Davies and Allan 1977 46-7). While achievement tests are concerned with assessing what has been learned of a known syllabus, proficiency tests are based on assessing the learning of either a known or nameless syllabus.The concept of communicative competenceThe idea of communicative language teaching emerged in the 1970s following Hymes theory of communicative competence, which greatly exclamatory learners ability to use language in context, particularly, in cost of social demands of performance (McNamara, 2000 116). Hymes believes that knowing a language is more than knowing its rules. at a time Hymes visualized the idea of communicative competence, it was expanded in various ways during the following two decades. The term competence was interpreted in many different ways by researchers. To some it simply means the ability to slide by to others it means the social rules of language use and to yet other, it refers to a set of abilities including experience of linguistics, socio-linguistics and discourse rules (Bachman & Palmar, 1984 34). However, the basic idea of communicative competence be the ability to use language appropriately, both receptively and productively, in real situations (Kiato, et al. 1996 1)The development of communicative language testingThe idea of communicative testing was developed on the basis of Hymes two dimensional model of communicative competence that comprises a linguistic and a sociolinguistic element. Davies et al. gives the following description of communicative language testsCommunicative tests are tests of communicative skills, usually used in contradi stinction to tests of grammatic knowledge. Such tests often claim to operationalise theories of communicative competence, although the form they take will depend on which dimension they choose to emphasise, be it specificity to context, reality of materials or the simulation of real life performance. (Davies et al. 1999 26)Harrison mentions three ingredients which distinguishes a communicative language test from other tests. He argues1. A communicative test should assess language used for a purpose beyond itself. 2. A communicative test should depend on the bridging of an information bed cover. It has to propose a language using purpose which can be action by the communicative skill so far acquired by the learners. 3. A communicative test should represent an encounter. The situation at the end of it should be different from what it was at the beginning, and this means that there has to be some chronological succession within the test.(Harrison, 1983 77-8)Competence Vs performance There have been debates among the researchers regarding the nature and function of communicative tests. One issue of controversy was how to specify the components of communicative competence and to relate them in measuring performances. Another complication arose as the hurt competence and performance were used differently by various researchers suggesting important distinctions amongst them. Chomsky (1965) claimed that competence refers to the linguistic system which an i potentiometer native vocaliser has internalized whereas performance is mainly concerned with the psychological factors that are involved in the perception and production of speech.Later Hymes (1972) explicitly, and Campbell and Wales (1970) implicitly proposed a broader notion of communicative competence in which they included grammatical competence as well as contextual or sociolinguistic competence. They, however, adopted the distinction between communicative competence and performance. According to Canale an d Swain (1980 3) competence refers to knowledge of grammar and other aspects of language while performance refers to actual use.For the language testing researchers it was rough to determine an ideal test model, which could be valid and genuine enough to test communicativecompetence. They were concerned with what performances for designate based activities adopt to be devised in order to assess learners communicative competence. The most discussed solve to this query is the one provided by Canale and Swain (1980) who, in their influential work Approaches to Second Language Testing condition four aspects of knowledge or competence- grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence and discourse competence.What makes good communicative tests?Though a communicative language test intents to measure how students use language in real life, it is difficult to set a chore that can measure communicative competence in real contexts. Ellison (2001 44) argues that testing by its very nature is artificial and unless we are to follow an examinee around all the time noting how he/she deals with the target language in all situations, we necessarily have a less than real situation. However, it should be the aim of the test setter to try and complement real situations as much as possible. Referring to the difficulty of identifying the elements of communicative testing Morrow (1991) statesThe essential question which a communicative test must answer is whether or not (or how well) a medical prognosis can use language to communicate meanings. precisely communicate meanings is very elusive criterion indeed on which to base judgment.(Morrow, 1991 112)There have been attempts to develop a model for communicative competence and valid tests of its components. Bachman and Palmer (1984 35) describe three approaches the skill-component approach, communicative approach and measurement approach to specify what language tests measure. Offering a detailed inte rpretation of the Canale-Swain communicative approach, Bachman and Palmer specify some factors (trait factors, modal factors, method factors) that should be considered while excogitation a performance test. Having examined the structure of a model which encompasses these three factors, Skehan (1991 9) regarded it as being of pivotal importance in influencing the language testing theories and practices passim the 1990s. Later Bachman went further as he offered important distinctions between parturiency-based and construct-based approaches to test design. He explainedThe procedures for design, development, and use of language tests must incorporate both a specification of the assessment task to be included and definition of the abilities to be assessed.(Bachman, 2000 456)Task based language assessment gave rise to two questions a) How real-life task types are identified, selected and characterized and how pedagogic or assessment tasks are related to these (Bachman, 2000 459) .The treatment of different approaches to language testing are concerned with their strengths and limitations in terms of the criteria of rigourousness and reliability. Validity in language testing is about whether a test can measure what it is intended to measure. Other arguments regarding the test validity include the question of content relevance and representativeness, task difficulty and so on Reliability refers to the extent to which test scores are consistent.Assessing second language authorshipAssessment of second language piece of makeup has been discussed on the basis of two different approaches objective test of paternity and direct test of composition. Objective tests claim to test makeup through verbal reasoning, wrongdoing recognition and other measures that have been shown fairly highly with measured report ability (Lyons, 1991 5). In direct tests of writing, actual samples of students writings are assessed. In fact, direct tests of writing have won the support o f many researchers as they engage students with more communicative and creative task types. However, this approach has also been criticised for lacking reliability. Despite their chores with reliability, direct tests are still very general in many academic settings throughout the world.Kiato et al. (1996 2) refer to some typical problems of testing writing. They point out that testing writing objectively whitethorn not necessarily reflect the way it is used by the students in the real world. On the other hand, testing of writing in a way that reflects how the students use writing in real world is difficult to evaluate objectively and the test setters has less control over the writing tasks. However, they argue that the ability to write should involve six component skills- grammatical ability, lexical ability, mechanical ability, stylistic skills, organisational skills and judgment of appropriacy. Among the writing tasks they find effectual are gap filling, form completion, making corrections, letter and essay writing.Weir (1988 63-4) offers an lucubrate discussion on both indirect (objective) and direct tests and distinguishes the two types. He argues that writing can be divided into discrete elements such as grammar, vocabulary and punctuation etc. and these elements are tested separately by the use of objective tests. He suggested that both productive and receptive skills can be broken down in to levels of grammar and lexis according to a discrete point framework and objective tasks such as cloze, selective deletion, gap filling etc. can be designed for testing information with writing. Weir describes the direct test of writing as a more integrative test which tests a candidates ability to perform current of the functional tasks required in the performance of duties in the target situation.Research on writing involving both native speakers and second language are also concerned with basic studies of the nature of writing process in order to relate them to the validity of writing test tasks. Some of the questions concerned are1. To what extent is performance influenced by the amount of prior knowledge that writers have about the topic that they are asked to write about in a test? 2. Does it make a difference how the writing task is specified on the test paper? 3. Do different types of tasks release significant difference in the performance of learners in a writing test? (Read, 1991 77) Johns (1991 171) suggests three criteria for academic testing of writing- (1) use of adaptation for writing assessment testing for audience awareness, (2) exploitation of common writing genres occupation and problem solution, and (3) testing of subject matter, conceptual control and planning. He insists that reading and writing be combined to give a more authentic context for testing writing for academic purpose. He saysBecause reading and writing are interconnected at all academic levels, it seems unprofessional and surely unacademic to test wr iting without the genuine interactivity that reading provides.(Johns, 19991 176)Literature on testing has suggested different strategies to cope with the problem of making direct writing tasks. The problem with these tasks is they are very difficult to mark as the marking of such tasks is somewhat subjective. One solution suggested by many testing experts is to use an analytical marking scheme to help make the marking consistent. spud (1979 19) outlined the nature of a marking scheme demanded by the Associated Examining Boards, A marking scheme is a comprehensive document indicating the explicit criteria against which candidates answers will be judged it enables the examiners to relate particular marks to answers of specified quality.There have been discussions on two types of marking for free writing tasks- impressionistic and analytic. However there are arguments over what valid and current measures of writing can be used and what might be the relationship of these measures to o verall impressionistic quality rating. The TOFEL examination included a direct writing measure (Connor, 1991 216) in 1986 for the test of written English that was mark holistically (TOFEL test of written English guide 1989).A great deal of research was conducted by the Educational Testing Service into the development and validation of a measure to assess communicative competence in writing (Bridgman Carlson, 1983 Carlson et al. 1985). A holistic scoring guide was developed to mark two general topics-comparison/contrast and describing a graph that had six levels and included syntactical and rhetorical criteria. The Test of Written English Scoring Guidelines (1989) identified the following criteria of a written task.An essay in the highest category is- well form and well developed, effectively addressed the writing task, uses appropriate details to support or illustrate ideas, shows unity, coherence and progression, displays consistent facility in the use of language, and demonstra tes syntactic variety and appropriate word choice.(The Test of Written English Scoring Guidelines, 989)The marking scheme suggested by ELTIP to help teachers assess writing compositions is made on the basis of five criteria- grammar, vocabulary, mechanical accuracy, communication and content. A Marking scheme like this shows how developments in language testing research are providing models to cope with the challenges of marking writing tasks.The SSC Curriculum, syllabus and the testThe SSC is the school leaving public examination for grad 10 students. English is a compulsory subject at this level and the test of English is an achievement test in kind. The test is designed to test reading and writing skills only as there is no provision of testing audition and speaking skills.The NCTB syllabus of English focuses on the development of the four skills through learner-centred activities within meaningful contexts. It gives importance to choosing contexts which reflect actual social si tuations extracurricular the classroom and make the learning of English relevant, interesting and enjoyable. It is expect as per the syllabus that students should achieve an elementary to intermediate command of the four language skills by the end of secondary level. The curriculum document specifies the objective and purposes of learning English as it statesEnglish require to be recognised as an essential work-oriented skill that is needed if the employment, development and educational needs of the country are to be met successfully. Increased communicative competence in English, therefore, constitutes a vital skill for learners at this stage.(SSC Syllabus Document, 1999, NCTB 136)Terminal competencies in four skills are specified in the NCTB syllabus. The competencies for writing skills for grade 10 are defined as followsStudents should be able to-a) write simple dialogues, formal and informal letters including letters of application and reports. b) demonstrate imagination and creativity in appropriate writing forms. c) fill in the forms (i.e. business organisation applications etc.) and write a curriculum vitae d) plan and organise the above tasks expeditiously so as to communicate ideas and facts clearly, accurately and with relevance to the topic. e) take notes and dictationsf) use different punctuation and geographical devices appropriately.

Developmentally Appropriated Practice For Preschoolers Education Essay

Nowadays more and more pargonnts be flavor for reserve attention for their electric s toleraters. DAP gives an chance realize all told necessitys and outlook of p argonnts. maturementally Appropriate Practice ( DAP ) is a attention that takes into history each kid s degree of animal(prenominal), social- frantic, lingual talk, rational, and adaptative development. Children provided with the chance to prosecute in DAP atomic number 18 better set up for success in initiate and society.The subject of DAP is discussed in the book Developmentally Appropriate Practice course of study and Development in Early Education , by carol Gestwicki. The book explains what DAP is and touches such subjects as developmentally separate physical, social, emotional, cognitive and linguistic communication environments. The methodic and plan of DAP differ for every fester group ( Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers, Primary-Aged Children ) .The preschool age kids develop larning activities tha t include linguistic communication, motor physical activity and motions. such(prenominal) activities normally include mystifiers and blocks, wheel playthings and climbers, dramatic drama moving and write up relation. Preschoolers enjoy antithetic experiences and activities such as cutting paper and material some cookery and other stratagem activities. Children of this age already undersurface acknowledge forms, colourss they can even utilize simple math and problem-solving accomplishments. At this age kids combine thoughts, their memory is turning and their motor accomplishments ar bettering. Children describe a large involvement in the written linguistic communication. Kids as well as develop an involvement in the universe around them, are well-disposed of particular events and trips.Adults should listen to kids, promote originative drama, fall in them in activities, aid to construct self-esteem, and set consistent bounds. Preschoolers need grownups to promote and guts up their originative drama, articulation in their activities, assist them to understand societal norms, and set consistent bounds with them. Three and four-year-old kids should be given large chances to derive experience with linguistic communication, big motor physical activities, motion, and all right motor activities.Adults who work with kindergartners should hold warm, fostering personality with appropriate behaviour, willing to larn, be dependable, to understand the emerging demand for the kindergartner to set up friendly relationships and have. Adult should accept different attention giving methods and techniques, in like manner read, talk and listen to the kid.Developmentally appropriate patterns include social/emotional, cognitive, physical and linguistic communication development.Social and emotional development of kindergartners. It is really of write for kindergartners to develop their accomplishments in societal and emotional domains which are keys to their success in life, every bit good as, school. The surveies of scientists explain how necessary societal and emotional preparedness is to a kindergarten activities, success in school, and their ulterior grownup achievements. on that point are three cardinal ends for societal and emotional development. The first is the horse sense of Self. It deals with a fact of how childs feel valued and accepted by the commonwealth whom they love. The 2nd is the Responsibility for Self and Others. It deals with developing wonts and character qualities such as duty, and independency, autonomy of a kid, and following regulations and modus operandis. The 3rd key is the Prosocial Behavior, which works with qualities such as empathy and sharing that that will assist kids to collaborate in the universe.cognitive development of kindergartners is the procedure of larning how to believe and happen a ground. Such accomplishments are connected with literacy and mathematics. Such domains as scientific discipline and soc ietal surveies, are besides includes the same as the humanistic disciplines, and engineering. Such development is non just now memorising facts. Preschool kids are larning to larn. Such accomplishment is of import for future acquisition. The three ends are acquisition and job resolution, logical thought, representation and symbolic thought activity. skill and Problem Solving teaches small kids how they should information, resources, and stuffs they have. Kids learn how to believe about their thoughts, how to do anticipations, and besides how to prove possible solutions. The qualities such as wonder, continuity, and using cognition, win larning more of import than merely larning new facts about the universe.Logical mentation helps kindergartners to understand the information they are garnering. Children attempt to compare and contrast things, to covering and sort. Besides kids learn to number, step and so on.Representation and Symbolic view aid kids to concentrate on how they use symbols in idea. Symbols can be objects, people or representations through drawings. Symbolic believing besides includes. material accomplishments are besides really of import for the bettering accomplishments in reading, composing, scientific discipline, and math. bodily development affects societal and emotional development because childs gain assurance maculation they learn what their organic structures can make. The more childs can make, the more their want to seek new and more hard undertakings appear. The two ends for motor accomplishments are gross motor and all right motor.Gross motor development involves the motions that are controlled by the organic structure s big musculuss magical spell all right motor development wage attending to commanding, coordination, and dexterity of the itty-bitty musculuss in the kids s custodies.Environment for activities should be clean and adept the plaything and stuffs should be displayed on unfastened, low shelves. There should b e countries for the succeeding(prenominal) types of acquisition centres or infinite for kids to play with the following types of stuffs dramatic drama, blocks, art colouring, picture, pulling, pasting, etc. The country should include sand and H2O district for compete games. Working stuffs should include books. Activities should include music and motions, while the manipulatives would be mystifiers, nogs, little building points scientific discipline. There besides need to be include some sort of big motor country for throwing, siting, mounting, jumping, running are for separate cot/mat for single sleeping some private, pickup arm infinites. All countries ought to be soft.The stuffs that are normally used in DAP with kindergartners are siting playthings, balls/bean bags to throw, mounting equipment, books, blocks ( different forms, textures, weights, colourss, sizes plus vehicles, animate beings ) . Such dramatic drama stuffs as vesture, theme points ( house, physician s office, food market shop, etc. ) are besides used. Teachers and parents should utilize art supplies motley sorts of pigments, crayons, markers, chalk, assorted sorts of paper, drama dough, gum, paste, scissors, etc. while the composing supplies should include pens, pencils, paper, stapling machine, paper pickup holders, envelopes, following letters and Numberss, etc.Language development plays a wide function in development of kindergartners because a foundation in linguistic communication development gives childs accomplishments needed to go successful scholars. The researches show that kids who have large linguistic communication experiences in preschool are more volitionally to do stronger their linguistic communication and literacy accomplishments. The qualification of kids to listen, compose, read and talk is substantial interdependently. The ends for linguistic communication development are hearing, speech production, reading and composing.earshot and Talking involves spoken lin guistic communication. Such accomplishments as holding a big vocabulary and ability to show oneself are of import for kids. discipline and Writing involves the aid of grownups to do sense of written linguistic communication for kids as they enjoy reading. Such development additions kid s ability to manage books and understand the intent of book and how it works, it besides teaches how to recite a narrative. Preschoolers learn the alphabet and words while playing games.Developmentally appropriate pattern for kids should be alone for every kid, because all kids are different and have different abilities. Parents should cognize that the acquisition and development of their kids depends on worry to all facets of a kid s wellbeing. Attention should be compensable to physical, societal, emotional and cognitive dimensions of kid development.

Burn Case Study

Mr. Davis is a 56-year-old man who was involved in a fire in his home. He was smoking a cig arette and fell asleep, dropping the cigarette and igniting the write out linens. He sustained full thickness burns over the fastness half of his trunk and neck (anterior and posterior) and the posterior aspects of both upper arms. He also sustained superficial partial-thickness burns to his face and hands. He arrived at your burn unit 5 hours after injury. Labs were drawn. A foley catheter and NG thermionic vacuum tube were inserted in the ER. Assessment findings Height is 72 inches, weight is 185 lbs.You auscultate wheezes in the patients lungs and he has a productive cough of a small amount of carbon-tinged sputum. Mr. Davis rates his pain at a 9 on a scale of 0-10. He denies pain at the chest, neck, back, and upper arms. Urine output has totaled 150 ml since the foley was inserted 2 hours ago. His foley is exhausting burgundy-colored urine. Mr. Davis is experiencing nausea, has faint bowel sounds, and his abdomen is distended. A nasogastric tube was inserted to low intermittent suction and is draining dark yellow-green liquid.His extremities are edematous devising the pulses difficult to palpate. His blood pressure is 96/50, pulse 114 beats per minute, respirations are 24, and temperature is 100 degrees Fahrenheit. The greatest initial threat to a patient with a major burn is hypovolaemic shock. Using the above assessment 1. Do you think Mr. Davis is experiencing hypovolemic shock? If so, what data supports this? (2 points) Yes, Mr. Davis is most likely experiencing hypovolemic shock, due to low blood pressure, increased heart rate, as well up as an increase in respiratory rate.

Peloponnesian War (Research Pap.)

DESTINED FOR WAR Jarod Bleibdrey, M. S. C. J January 20, 2013 As gentles concur evolved into vast, complex civilizations, a growing tr break off became remarkable to mankind, which was corruption. Speculating that Herodotus was the set score dependable historian, and Thucydides was the second, then the Peloponnesian War would be the first form of govern handst corruption in which fight became inevitable. At this bear stamp out, the fight varies in perception of the deuce great shackles, and why the state of war was evening fought.This essay pull up stakes introduce how the Peloponnesian War stood as a great compositors case of how super draw and quarter plays bring thrust into skirmish with unriv eithered an opposite(a), base upon corruption, vast difference in lifestyles, and the urging from little entities. Focus exit be on how both capital of Greece and Spartas political, social and diplomatical systems forced them into battle, alone the battles themselves are of little concern in this essay. It was the down the scenes events that can best explain and summarize the war.With the focus laying upon the causes of the war, it becomes strategic to remember that, what began as a great union, turned into the devastation of Greece and allowed the adadvantage of Philip of Macedonia to com workforcece. Let us begin with the culture of capital of Greece and Sparta, in an prove to explain the vast contrast inwardly the two urban center- solid grounds. The hards were obsessed with their multitude superiority, while the Athenians were interested in puff and culture. Granted, the Athenian Navy was the strongest naval force of the age, and more on this when we get to corruption.The culture of capital of Greece and Sparta was different to their core e reallything from political to cursory living conflicted, causing them to become competitive and distrustful of separately early(a). The severe government was a really complex structure, which consisted of a dual monarchy, a warrior conference (apella), a council of elders (gerousia) and the ephors. Herodotus claims that the two royal families of Sparta, which consisted of the Agiadai and Eurypontidai families, shared a common ancestry and could trace their stock back to Herakles himself.Thus making the royal families by blood lines, which would be futile to be displaced, as opposed to that of military power, which could be overthrown. The kings were limited in their power as they provided held command of the military. They had no influence in the laws which were left to the apella, gerousia and ephors. The apella was composed of e precise Spartan warrior who had r distri saveivelyed the age of thirty. The apellas uncreated functions included electing members for the gerousia, and the ephors. The apella held the ultimate power on matters of legislation and policy.The manner in which they voted was through a process of acclamation. Above the apella was the gerou sia, which consisted of the two kings and twenty-eight members of Spartan warriors who had reached the age of sixty. The members elect into the gerousia served a life full term, and could only be remove by the ephors. The reliable nature of the gerousia is unk nowadaysn, but Herodotus wrote the gerousia could serve as a court to hear capital cases. The last political system of the Spartans and possibly the most classic is that of the ephors. The five ephors were freely elected each grade and attended much of the daily business of Sparta.Each month the kings and the ephors would exchange oaths, to which each pledged to uphold the position of the other. The ephors were the true controlling body of the Spartans, and thereofly resembled an oligarchy rule. It was this oligarchic rule of the ephors which insisted on the agoge, and placed Sparta into a militaristic focused city- resign. The government in capital of Greece followed a very different mannikin than Sparta. Athenian citizens had the duty to vote or hold office. During the 6th speed of light B. C. , capital of Greece instituted a unique form of government in which the citizens had a direct say in the election of loss leaders.This early form of majority rule was lead by Cleisthenes who created the Assembly, which comprised every citizen of capital of Greece, and the Council of Five Hundred. This Council was comprised of fifty representatives from each of the ecstasy Tribes of capital of Greece. This ensured each tribe had an commensurate say in the creation of laws and election of leaders. To ensure equality, the law was set that each member of the fifty from one of the ten tribes must not be related, nor hold the same rail line as all other memberto ensure there was no nepotism or common vestment.The Council of five hundred represented the legislative body of Athens. The executive power was placed deep down the Strategus, in which 10 generals were elected into office for one course te rms, of these 10 strategi, one was elected as leader of the group and served as commander in chief. The judicial power of Athens was placed with the Areopagus, or the Supreme Court. This body was made up, primarily, of squiffy land owners who had been elected as archons (judges) in the past. This legislative, executive and judicial branch government is reminiscing to all ultra innovational day democracies.The major deviation from modern times being that Athens was a direct democracy, in which the citizens had to be present to vote. Each branch of the government was capable of vetoing one another, thus establishing a check and balance system. It was excessively customary to expel from the country, either speaker who became too powerful, in a process called ostracism. Every year the Council voted and one member would be ostracized (banished) for a period of ten years. Athens would vote by tossing colored rocks into a giant pot.This would be a very time consuming process as each root word would have orators speak on its be half(prenominal), and upon conclusion of the debate the voting would begin. The rocks were all white or black, where white stood for approve and black represented a denial. When choosing a person to ostracize, broken shards of pottery called ostrakon would be used with the think person of exile diagnose, etched onto the shard. After all votes were made, the numbers of each were tallied and the victor/ostracized proclaimed. This would take a long time and thus the Athenians prided themselves upon their fealty and attention to detail.This could have lead modern historians to ensure the Spartans as impulsive, and the Athenians as cautious. This has been a major misconception, as evident by the speech abandoned by King Archidamus of Sparta, in which the Spartan King asked the council to exercise close and caution before declaring war upon Athens. In turn, Pericles himself urged the Athenians to war against a dominating land army. An other difference between the two great city- recites was their daily living and how it affected the handle in the two cities.The Athenian providence was heavily certified upon opposed trade and because of their location on the Aegean Sea, maritime became life, and the sea meant life and livelihood. While trade was a necessity in Athens, Sparta relied upon their slave labor. The Helots (slaves) of Sparta were the driving force of Spartan agriculture, and allowed for Spartans excessive free time to translate into their dedication to the agoge. Since Sparta was cut off from the rest of Greece by two mountain ranges there was little trade being conducted, and thus alliances ere not a suitable strong signal of Sparta. The Spartans rarely traveled from their city-state or allowed foreigners into it, thus making the only true vantage of joining Sparta, being that of their reputation in battle. With Sparta being an isolationistic state, their perception would have been considered tru th and fact, no matter what was written of them. champion of the greatest differences between the Athenian and the Spartans regarded their attitude towards women. The role of women in the Hellenic city states of Athens and Sparta sheds light upon the acceptable values of their time.Spartan women had similar equality to their male counterpart (except for voting rights). Spartan women did little housework or sewing, as they relied upon their slave labor to conduct the daily chores. Due to the men being in the military and often away from home, the women had full means over their households and were not forced into a life of only childbearing and housekeeping. Since Spartan women demonstrated a greater authoritative influence, the nation thrived and became a beacon of advancement, which would truly be a closer resemblance to modern civilizations than Athens.When Athenian girls came of age, their fathers offered them for marriage. Even as wives, they were required to stay indoors at all times, and their primary life tasks were child rearing, housework, and sewing, thus giving them no possibility to contribute to the Athenians development and culture. Sparta was un behind, perpetually concentrating on war and the state of Sparta as a whole, while the Athenians focused their attention on comfort and found time to foster great thinkers in science, philosophy, literatureetc.With their differences in government, physical surroundings and views on women, Sparta and Athens represented the two very different ways a polis could have been back in the 5th century of Ancient Greece, and thus set them-selves on a dispel course for supreme strength, but war and battle would hold a true value to the Greeks, and so it was battles which lead to great alliances and enemies. In 478 BC, quest the defeat of Xerxes invasion of Greece, Pausanias the Spartan led Hellenic forces against the Persians.He was an un commonplace commander (who may have conspired with the Persians), and Sparta was eager to stop prosecuting the war. Sparta surrendered the leadership of the ongoing stir to Athens, whom was eager to accept it. The Athenians now had their hazard to take the reins and gain triumph for themselves and Greece. The Delian confederation was inaugurated in 477 BC as an offensive and defensive alliance against Persia. The principal cities in the confederation were Athens, Chios, Samos, and Lesbos, but m each of the principal islands and Ionian cities joined the unite.Athens led the Delian league from the beginning, though at its founding the exchequer was located on the island of Delos, and each state in the league had an equal vote. The sound judgment due from each state was assigned by Aristides the Just, leader of the Athenians some members were assessed ships, others troops, others weapons, and others money. A council of all the cities met at Delos regularly, probably when bringing their assessment to the island. The turning point of the Delian l eague occurred in 461 BC, when Cimon was ostracized, and was succeeded in his influence by democrats like Ephialtes and Pericles.This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the Spartans and rather allying with her enemies, Argos and Thessaly. Megara deserted the Peloponnesian league and allied herself with Athens, allowing tress of a double line of walls across the Isthmus of Corinth, protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Around the same time they also constructed the Long Walls connecting their city to the Piraeus, its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land.The Athenian dominance within the Delian league was unmatched and unquestioned this led to major changes within the Delian league and Athens. This progression and events will be discussed later within this essay. retrovert back, the Delian league was not the only alliance within Greece, as the Spartan lead Peloponnesian league also took root. In the s econd half of the 8th century B. C. , Sparta conquered Messenia, a state in the southwest of the Peloponnese. The land was turned over to Spartans and the Messenians turned into helots.The Messenians revolted in the middle of the next century, but after 17 years, the Spartans prevailed. By the time the Spartans were attacking the Arcadian city of Tegea, in the 6th century her plans for the conquered citizens had changed. Tegea was made a dependent state obligated to furnish troops. Sparta soon created a confederacy of most of the other Peloponnesian states according them a similar arrangement Sparta was in rase (known as the hegemon) and they would supply troops. Each had its own treaty and sent deputies to patron in decision-making.This became known as the Peloponnesian confederation. Unlike that of the Delian League, the Peloponnesian league has no official start date, as each treaty was hoard and ap prove over time and in that time the tag found of Peloponnesian league was presumptuousness. This league was formed in recognition of Spartas dominance and no misconceptions of that were ever given. Each city-state that joined recognized Spartas military power as better than their own, and utilized the Peloponnesian League as a body guard against other city-states looking to brim over them.Under the protection of the Spartans, their allies enjoyed a voice when they would have been forced to stick silent. Unlike Athens, the Spartans did not make their allies pay any tribute, but they did ensure they were governed by oligarchies (who would work in the interest of the Spartans). It is important to maintain Argolis and Achaea were excluded from this league. Argos and Sparta had been at odds over the filth of Thyreatis. Their first battle had proved to be inconclusive, as the story goes, all but one on the Spartan side and two on the Argive side were killed.The Argives claimed the advantage because more survived, and went back home. The Spartan stayed on t he spot and therefore claimed he was the victor. The next time the two sides fought, the Argives clearly lost and forfeited the territory to Sparta. With two powerful alliances within Greece, one would conclude that war would have been inevitable however, Sparta did not want to advance into war with Athens. Athens did not wish to advance into war with Sparta, but the corruption of Athens created a ambit of events which spawned the forthcoming war.Thucydides extinguishes the cause of the Peloponnesian war to be that of Spartas jealousy and concern in Athens growing power. This is stated in Book 1 verse 23, when Thucydides states, But the real reason for the war is, in my opinion, most likely to be disguised by such(prenominal) an argument. What made war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the upkeep which this caused in Sparta. This view point is, in my opinion, very closed tending(p) to the whole. The history of the Delian league leads to a better perspective in tha t the Delian League, specially the Athenians, were willing to force cities to join or stay in the League.As an example to this, let us examine Carystus, a city on the southerly tip of Euboea, who was forced to join the League by military force of the Athenians. The justification for this was that Carystus was enjoying the advantages of the League (protection from pirates and the Persians) without taking on any of the responsibilities. Furthermore, Carystus was a conventional base for Persian occupations. The Athenian politicians had to justify these acts to Athenian voters in rate to get votes, and so they utilized oration to sway the public vantage of the situation.Next is Naxos, a member of the Delian League, which move to secede, and was enslaved Naxos is believed to have been forced to tear down her walls, lost her fleet, and her vote in the Delian League. Thucydides tells us that this is how Athens control over the League grew. Of all the causes of defection that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of table ser depravity, was the chief for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor.In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes.Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war. -Thucydides At this point it is important to note that Thucydides is an Athenian General, and even though he offers a large writing to state he will approach his historical account with eyewitness proof and scientific based methodhe is bound to bias. Even the name most commonly known as the Peloponnesian War is dark upon the Athenian view point. In Spartan record, the war is referred to as the Athenian War.In ancient Greek writings the name of a battle is given to the opposing side, as to infer the enemy started the confrontation and modern interpreting is inclined to demonstrate this. If at this point one is resistant to this view point, I offer Thucydides own words when commenting on why Athens became the dictator of the Delian League, We have done nothing surprising, nothing contrary to human nature, if we accepted leadership when it was offered and are now unwilling to give it up. -Thucydides With Thucydides now shown as biased record, the observation of what truly caused the Peloponnesian/Athenian war is to come to light. Athens and Sparta were the superpowers of ancient Greece, with only Corinth possessing the ability to be of notable follow in matching these powers. In 454 BC, Athens moved the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, Plutarch indicates that many of Pericles rivals viewed the transfer as Athens way to utilize the leagues monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. They also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons, to only accepting money. The new treasury realised in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the vindication of members of the league.It was from tribute paid to the league that Athenians built the Acropolis and the Parthenon, as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. It was during this time, Donald Kagan expresses, and the Athenian Empire arose, as the adept definition of empire is a group of cities paying taxes to a central, overriding city, while keeping loca l governments intact. This is what began to occur within the Delian League. It was turning from an alliance to an empireagainst the wishes of the league. With Athens now being the most powerful of the Delian league, the smaller city-states were obliged to remainor join Sparta.The smaller city-states are, in my opinion, the true cause of the Peloponnesian War, as they began to bounce from an alliance with Athens to Sparta and vice versa. If Athens and Sparta are to be viewed as two boulders, connected by a single chain (which represents the smaller city states), as the chain pulls from one to the otherthe boulders become destined to collide. This situation is reminiscing to England v. France, U. S. A. v. Russia (Cold War) and multiple other wars since the Peloponnesian War. Both sides had many opportunities for diplomacy to take effect, and the essences pushed force into the only method of resolution.Diplomacy in Sparta consisted of the allies of the Peloponnese to take up the forum and express their grievances. Corinth laid the foundation and even though the Spartan king attempted to refrain from entering into a war with Athens, the council voted to declare war upon Athens for their many violations of the peace treaty. With that, an ultimatum was sent to Athens The Spartan assembly appointed that Athens should abandon the siege of Potidaea and should give Aegina her independence, but the chief point was that war could be avoided if Athens would revoke the Megarian decree which excluded the Megarians from all ports n the Athenian Empire and from the market in Attica itself. The Athenians focused upon the latter of the demands, (seeing as they would not yield to the first), and in this Pericles gives a riveting speech to the assembly stating that giving in to any of Spartas demands would be an act of submissiveness and that would, in turn, lead to Sparta dictating further Athenian actions. The council voted for war and thus the Athenian war began. This was the final attempt at diplomacy before the two juggernauts shape off against each other.Diplomacy, to this point, has kept the giants in their respective corners, but the subordinate city-states pushed them into battle. The Spartans knew of their inferiorities on the ocean, and of their perpetual tether to their homelandand in so, they were limited. The Athenians relied upon their superior numbers, finances, navy and arrogance to see them through as victors. On paper the battle was desperately in the Athenians favor, but Sparta was breed for war, and Athens had turned friends into enemies. Finally, it is important to remember Athens set out with great intention, as the Delian League was a symbol of unity and cohesive teamwork.With that great power, Athens became dependent upon the tributes and became a superpower of monumental stature. Athens then began punishing any of those that wished or attempted to defect from the Delian league. It is now apparent why the Delian league is synonym ous with the Athenian Empire, and proof that power leads to corruption. About now, one remembers that Sparta won this conflict, (with the aid of the Persians), and became the supreme ruler of all Greece. True to the Peloponnesian league, Sparta instituted an oligarchy within the borders of Athens, and that lasted for thirty years.It was not corruption that led to the fall of the Athenian oligarchy it was the mass and their customization to democracy. The oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was instilled back into the polis. This demonstrates that not all subjective groups with power will abuse it, but when power is free to be graspedbeware. The story continues to demonstrate how Athens and Sparta were so devastated by fighting each other, that Philip of Macedonia was able to jibe in and conquer all of Greece. This set up the perfect opportunity for Alexander the Great, (Philips son) to conquer the known world and spread the greatness of Greece to all corners.Without the Pelopon nesian War, Philip would probably not been able to conquer and the Hellenistic divinity fudge would have been confined. When viewing epic battles between the boulders of humanity, it is essential to remember the outcome is necessary for the future line of events to occur. BIBLIOGRAPHY * Donald Kagan, 2003, The Peloponesian War, publishing company Penguin Group (U. S. A) * Thucydides, story of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) * Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans.J. M. Moore (Berkeley calcium University of atomic number 20 Press, 1975) * Paul Cartledge, 2002, The Spartans, newspaper publisher time of origin Publishing (New York) * Nic Fields, 2007, Thermopylae 480 BC Last Stand of the 300, Publisher Osprey Publishing (Oxford UK) * Karolos Papoulias, 2006, Athens-Sparta, Publisher Alexander S. Onassis Public utility al-Qaida (U. S. A. ) * D. M. Macdowell, 1986, Spartan Law, Publisher Pengui n Group (Edinburgh Scot. ) * C. A. Hignett, 1952, History of the Athenian Constitution to the end of the fifth century B. C. Publisher University of Oxford press (Oxford) * Yannis Lolos, 2006, The history of Athens from the ordinal to the late fifth century B. C. , Publisher Alexander S. Onassis Public acquire Foundation (U. S. A) * Herodotus, The Histories,ed. tin can Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London Penguin Group publishing, 2003) 1 . Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London Penguin Group publishing, 2003) pen 6. 52 2 . Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London Penguin Group publishing, 2003) poesy 5. 6-60 3 . Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London Penguin Group publishing, 2003) Verse 5. 40 4 . Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California University of California Press, 19 75) Verse 15. 7 of Xenophon The Politeia of the Spartans 5 . Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California University of California Press, 1975) taken from Aristotles The Constitution of Athens 6 . Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans.J. M. Moore (Berkeley California University of California Press, 1975) taken from Aristotles The Constitution of Athens 7 . Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 79-85 8 . Herodotus hints to this, but quickly states the facts are not there for condemning 9 . Kagan, 2003, The Peloponnesian War, Published by Penguin Group (U. S. A. ) 10 . Lolos, The history of Athens from the 8th to the late fifth century B. C. , 2006, Publisher Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation (U. S. A) 11 .Hegemon utilized by Thucydides to describe this relationship 12 . Cartledge, Th e Spartans, 2003, Publisher Vintage Books (U. S. A) 13 . Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 19 14 . Fields, Thermopylae 480 B. C. , 2007, Publisher Osprey Publishing (U. S. A) 15 . Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 23 16 . Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 99 17 .Cartledge, The Spartans, 2003, Publisher Vintage Books (U. S. A) pg. 181 18 . Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 76 19 . Kagan, 2003, The Peloponnesian War, Published by Penguin Group (U. S. A. ) 20 . Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 39 21 . I utilize the term Athenian war, because it was the Athenians who ultimately decided to engage in battle, as the Spartans were move to appease their allies and avoid war as well.